Universalizing implications of the World Health

Ability
CHAPTER
11
“ ” “Forgiveness for the ones who cut us deeply and wish that we
could love us all the same”
Justin Hines, 2011
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By mastering this unit, students will gain the skills and ability to:
● reflect upon the universalizing implications of the World Health
Organization’s definition of disability as something every human being can
at some point in their lifetime experience
● reconstruct attitudes and approaches whereby people with disabilities
move from being “objects” of charity, medical treatment, and social
protection to instead being “subjects” with the ability and rights to make
their own decisions and actively contribute to their community
● assess strategies for the civic engagement of all citizens through an
understanding that people with disabilities may experience limited
opportunities for social inclusion
● appraise universal design practices and principles as an approach to social
inclusion and accessibility
NEL
Ivelin Radkov/Shutterstock
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230 CHAPTER 11 Ability NEL
The term “dis”ability means “not” able and can lead us
to believe that we can categorize people as either ablebodied or disabled. The binarism imbued in the term
disability leads us to believe that you either are or you
are not, when the reality is we all live on a continuum
of ability that can fluctuate in form and permanence,
whether by birth or acquired through life events such
as injury, illness, or aging. So, in reality, most of us will
experience “disability” throughout our lifetime.
During the early 20th century, persons with disabilities were often segregated and institutionalized. It
wasn’t until veterans began returning home following
World War I that the social and political context for
persons with disabilities began to change in Canada.
Over time, improvements in public health and safety
and disease prevention also saw certain categories
of disability diminishing and disappearing. Today, as
more people are affected and diagnosed with traumatic
brain injuries, spinal cord injuries, depression, anxiety disorders, eating disorders, cancers, autoimmune
disease, attention-deficit disorder, autistic spectrum
disabilities, and dementia, we have seen the development and expansion of new disability categories such
as neurodiversity, psychiatric disabilities, learning disabilities, and disabilities of aging.
As we look at the complex and dynamic interactions that exist between our bodies and the society we
live in, it is clear that our social institutions will need to
respond accordingly. We live in a time where Canadian’s
are calling for a comprehensive national strategy for
dealing with dementia and building dementia-friendly
communities (Standing Senate Committee on Social
Affairs, Science and Technology, 2016). We live in a
time when 2 in 5 Canadians will develop cancer, 1 in
4 Canadians will die of cancer, and the total number
of new cases of cancer in Canada are expected to significantly increase over the next 15 years (Canadian
Cancer Society’s Advisory Committee on Cancer
Statistics, 2015). We live in a time where Canadians
have had to fight for door-to-door mail delivery service, a vital part of Canada’s infrastructure for older
Canadians and Canadians
with disabilities. We
live in a time where
Canadians are calling for
a national strategy on
autism. Evidence shows
that early diagnosis and
treatment are essential,
but long wait times for
assessment and diagnosis and bottlenecks for
funded treatment results
in serious consequences
for children and their families. We live in a time where
people with disabilities in Canada are more likely to
live in poverty, be unemployed, or be underemployed.
We live in a time where Canadian students with disabilities are less likely to graduate from high school or
postsecondary institutions. So, clearly, we live in a time
where we need to continue to work to remove barriers
to social inclusion, equity, and accessibility.
DEFINING DISABILITY
World Health Organization
Definition
The International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health of the World Health Organization
(WHO) describes disability as a universal human experience, noting that all human beings can at some point
in their lifetime experience a problem with mental or
physical health and, therefore, some degree of disability
(World Health Organization, 2013). This is the broadest
description of disability. According to the WHO description, a person might expect his or her abilities to change
World Down Syndrome Day uses a poster campaign slogan
“See the ability” in addressing attitudinal barriers to social
inclusion.
Source: Canadian Down Syndrome Society
Disability: A universal human
experience that anyone can
experience at any time;
disabilities can limit a person’s
ability to engage in daily
activities; disabilities can be
visible or invisible, temporary
or permanent.
World Health Organization
(WHO): United Nations
authority on health issues.
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NEL CHAPTER 11 Ability 231
over the course of a lifetime according to their stage of
life span development, individual experiences, ecological issues, and even the time of day (Hoyle, 2004).
Disability Binarism
Defining disability as a universal human experience
can help mitigate against disability binarism that
reinforces an us-versus-them approach to disabilities.
Victoria Venable (2016) talks about her experience
of living in between the dichotomy of being deemed
able-bodied and disabled, what she refers to as living in
the grey area of disability. When we use the term disability, what often comes to mind are persons who use
assistive devices like wheelchairs, walkers, or canes
because of mobility issues or sensory disabilities. For
Venable, there are times when she uses a wheelchair
for mobility and other times when she is able to walk
for short periods of time. This highlights the fact that
everyone has varying abilities as well as challenges,
and so-called disabilities can be as unique as a fingerprint. Variance in ability can be apparent at times for
some and invisible at times for others.
Visible and Invisible Disabilities
The term invisible disabilities, sometimes referred to
as non-evident disabilities, is used to refer to symptoms or conditions that are not always apparent to
others, such as chronic pain, mental health issues,
debilitating fatigue, sleep disorders, motor neuron disorders, learning disabilities, brain injuries, dizziness,
cognitive disabilities, hearing loss, chronic illness,
and many more. All of these conditions can be just
as life-affecting and debilitating as visible disabilities,
but persons with invisible disabilities can be reluctant
to self-identify, especially when they have had past
negative experiences or have recently acquired the
disability (Baldridge & Swift, 2013).
Persons with invisible disabilities must disclose
these disabilities in order to receive accommodations
at school or work. Even where protection against discrimination exists within the law, persons with invisible
disabilities might avoid disclosure and forego accommodations because of the social stigma attached to
having a disability, especially for psychological or psychiatric conditions (Santuzzi, 2013). Another reason
why persons with invisible disabilities are sometimes
reluctant to disclose is the additional stigma of being
perceived as someone who is trying to take advantage
of a situation (Anzovino, 2012). When someone who
“looks normal” discloses a disability and requests an
accommodation, others sometimes will question the
legitimacy of their disability, even when presented
with medical evidence (Santuzzi, 2013). For persons
with invisible disabilities, the decision about disclosure is not always an easy one. Individuals often carefully weigh the benefits of disclosure against the costs
of stigmatization (Chaudoir & Quinn, 2010).
Persons with visible disabilities may often experience treatment that is characterized as patronizing
and pitying as relayed by Jessica Hendriks who writes
this chapter’s In Their Shoes narrative. Persons with
invisible disabilities are often overlooked and misunderstood. A student who uses a wheelchair explained
it well when she told another student with a learning
disability, “People have high expectations of you when
you have invisible disabilities, like, ‘you’re just not
trying hard enough,’ but they have such low expectations of me in a wheelchair, like I can’t do much”
(Anzovino, 2012).
PEOPLE FIRST APPROACH AND
INCLUSIVE LANGUAGE
While ability is a part of a person’s identity, so called
“dis” ability does not define who a person might be.
When using inclusive language, it is important to put
the person first and avoid terms which equate the person
with the disability. People do not want to be defined by a
diagnosis. For example, this chapter’s Agent of Change
is Bill MacPhee. Person-first guidelines to inclusive language would describe Bill as a person living with schizophrenia, not a schizophrenic. A person-first approach
would avoid unnecessary reference to a person’s ability
unless relevant to the conversation. This does not suggest that a person’s disability is irrelevant and should
be ignored. It means that unless the person’s ability is
relevant to the discussion, their disability should not
define them. If, for example, Bill MacPhee is speaking
publicly on the topic of schizophrenia, he may be introduced as a person living with schizophrenia. But let’s
say you and Bill are out socially and you run into some
friends that you wish to introduce him to; you would
simply say, “Meet my friend Bill.” You would not say,
“Meet my friend Bill. He’s
schizophrenic.”
A people-first ap –
proach also does not
utilize terminology that
implies a person is a suffering victim of disability,
illness, or disease. You
would not say, “Meet Bill
who suffers from schizophrenia.” A people-first
approach does not
Disability Binarism: Mode
of thought that classifies
people as either able-bodied
or disabled.
Invisible Disability: When a
person has a disability that is
not apparent to others.
Visible Disability: When a
person has a disability that is
apparent by looking at them.
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232 CHAPTER 11 Ability NEL
patronize persons with disabilities as heroic or courageous when engaging in regular daily activities. This
approach also does not use the banner of “special,” as
it implies segregation needed for “special handling.”
Jessica Hendriks shares her experience of how others
have used her disability to define her, patronize her,
and segregate her. Her advice: “Get to know the person,
not the difference.”
IN THEIR SHOES
If a picture can say a thousand words, imagine the stories your shoes could tell! Try
this student story on for size – have you walked in this student’s shoes?
YOU KNOW MY DISABILITY NOT MY STORY.
My disability does not define me and it shouldn’t. I’ve
been in a wheelchair since I was two years old, but it
doesn’t really bother me … until people become ignorant, insensitive jerks, staring at me in public and asking
my friend questions about me when I am right there.
“I don’t know. Ask her,” she says.
Over the Christmas break, I took a few trips to
the mall, a few times with my friend and one without.
I went to pay for pictures I ordered but the machine
kept declining. The salesperson called my friend over,
who was a few feet away looking at something.
“Does she know what she is doing?” she asked
my friend.
The same day, I paid for my things at the dollar
store. The salesperson looked over at my friend who
was beside me and asked,
“Where does she want her bags?”
“I don’t know, ask her,” my friend said with a sarcastic smile and a bit of a glare.
The last time I went, I went by myself, because I
simply wanted some alone time. I got food and found
a seat in the rather busy food court. Someone who I
don’t know came up to me and unwrapped my food.
What are you doing? Stop touching my stuff.
“Do you need anything else?” she asks.
“Um, no thanks.” I said. I hadn’t asked for help to
begin with.
The whole time I was eating, a few people were
on the edge of their seats “keeping an eye on me.”
Every time I coughed, or seemed like I was having
trouble, they flinched.
“Are you OK?”
I think at this point anyone in my position would
be uncomfortable. But since I have anxiety, it was the
worst and I couldn’t finish eating my meal.
If you genuinely want to help, ask first. If the
response is no thanks, accept that we don’t need your
help. If I couldn’t do the simplest things by myself, why
do they think I am out alone? A woman admired me
for being independent.
“Are you here by yourself? Wow, you are really
independent. Good for you.”
But I’m just a person, eating pizza and cheese
bread, or at least trying to.
I always make sure I’m wearing my college ID so
that people would automatically know that I’m older
than I look and that I’m mentally aware and capable.
Once, it actually did show someone that. A guy looked
over at the person beside him, who I think asked if they
should check on me, and said, “I’m sure she’s fine.”
Other incidents include people petting me like a
dog, talking to me like a baby or toddler, and asking if
they can pray for me right there in front of me, which
is really awkward.
One time, about a year ago, someone actually
sat with me when I ate. Would you sit with an abled
person?
The one thing I don’t mind is when people ask me
questions. In fact, I encourage it. I’m an open book. It’s
better than people making assumptions. In case you
are wondering, I can do everything everyone else can,
just sometimes in a different way. I am 100 per cent
mentally aware and capable.
I am tired of hearing people compliment me and
be proud of me for doing “regular tasks.” I’d rather
be known as a good writer or advocate, because that’s
who I am.
Discrimination and narrow-mindedness, or just
ignorance, come with having a difference, whether it’s
disability, race, sexuality, religion, income, health, or
mental health. But it shouldn’t and doesn’t have to be
this way. I know many people, with various differences,
feel the same way as I do.
Discrimination has been around since the beginning of time. Thankfully, because of advocates, people
with differences have the same rights as everyone else,
and people have become more and more educated,
but we’re still not where we should be.
You have a choice. Don’t go by society’s standards. Don’t judge, stare, assume, or ignore. If you treat
everyone the same, and with the same respect, you’re
already a better person, and maybe it will cause a
chain reaction.
Get to know the person, not the difference.
Source: Hendriks, Jessica, “Don’t Judge Based on Disability,” January 21, 2016. First published in the Niagara News.
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NEL CHAPTER 11 Ability 233
Canadian National Institute for the Blind
(CNIB) is formally incorporated to provide
support to Canadians with vision loss,
including soldiers returning from World War I.
War Amps Canada is founded by war
amputees returning home from
World War I.
1918 1918
Sexual Sterilization Act of Alberta–adults and
children living in government-run institutions
are sterilized without their consent.
Veterans with disabilities return from
World War II.
The creation of the Canadian Association for
Retarded Children, renamed the Canadian
Association for Community Living in 1985. First Paralympic Games.
People with disabilities begin to organize for
rights as equal and active participants in
Canadian society.
Ontario is the !rst province to ensure
the legal right to a service animal for
persons. Canadian Human Rights Act–persons with disabilities
are given the legal right to be free from discrimination.
Coalition of Provincial Organizations of
the Handicapped (COPOH) is formed;
now known as the Council of Canadians
with Disabilities.
Canada hosts the Summer Paralympics in Toronto.
United Nations International Year for Disabled
Persons–designed to promote the full and
equitable participation of persons with disabilities.
Canadian Charter of Rights and
Freedoms–Canadians successfully lobby
for the inclusion of disability as a
protected ground under section 15.
National Strategy for the Integration of
Persons with Disabilities–government
initiative for the social and economic
inclusion and integration of persons with
disabilities.
1928–1972
1939–1945
1958
1970s
1976–1977
1976
Sexual Sterilization Act of British
Columbia.
1933–1979
Movement toward deinstitutionalization
in Canada starts in Saskatchewan with
the Saskatchewan Association for
Community Living.
1955
1960
1970
1976
1981
Employment Equity Act–sought to achieve equity
in the workplace for persons with disabilities and
other groups experiencing discrimination.
1986
United Nations proclaims December 3 International
Day of Persons with Disabilities.
1992
Accessibility for Ontarians with Disabilities Act
(AODA) establishes accessibility standards for
a barrier-free Ontario by 2025.
Canada hosts the Winter Paralympics in Vancouver.
2005
2010
Canada submits the !rst report to the CRPD
Committee.
2014
1982
1991
British Columbia becomes the !rst
province to close its large institutions for
people with developmental disabilities.
1996
Canada rati!es the UN Convention on
the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
(CRPD).
2010
FIGURE 11.1
Disability Rights in Canada
Source: Adapted in part from the Canadian Disability Policy Alliance (2012), Timeline of Disability Policy Events.
DISABILITY HISTORY IN CANADA
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234 CHAPTER 11 Ability NEL
Institutionalization and
Compulsory Sterilization
During the late 19th and early 20th century, persons
with mental health issues and physical and intellectual disabilities were often perceived as incapable and
were treated as objects of charity. Within this context, many persons with disabilities were segregated
from the rest of society and institutionalized in large
church or state-run facilities.
At this time in Canadian history, the provinces of
Alberta and British Columbia engaged in the compulsory sterilization of people deemed “unfit” or “mentally defective” (Office for Disability Issues HRDC,
2003). This included people who were institutionalized
and deemed “capable of propagating undesirable social
characteristics” (Grekul, Krahn, & Odynak, 2004).
The Sexual Sterilization
Act of Alberta was in effect
in that province from
1929 until 1972 (Grekul,
Krahn, & Odynak, 2004);
the Sexual Sterilization
Act of British Columbia
was in effect from 1933
until 1973 (Grekul,
Krahn, & Odynak, 2004).
Veterans with
Disabilities
As veterans from World
War I began to return
home with vision and
hearing loss, mobility
challenges, and mental
health issues as a consequence of war, the social
and political context
in Canada for persons
with disabilities began
to change (Galer, 2015).
Disability emerged as a
government policy issue
in Canada during World
War I as many Canadian
soldiers returned home
injured, and rapid industrialization produced
many work-related injuries (Office for Disability
Issues HRDC, 2003). In
1918, War Amps Canada
was founded by war
amputees returning home to Canada after World War
I. (War Amps Canada, 2016). In this same year, the
Canadian National Institute for the Blind was incorporated to provide support to Canadians with vision
loss, a need underscored by veterans with vision loss
returning from World War I (Canadian National Institute for the Blind, 2016).
In the aftermath of World War II, Canadian veterans with disabilities, seeing disparities in services
and supports between themselves and civilians with
disabilities, began to work as allies to ensure equity
for all persons with disabilities (Galer, 2015). New
coalitions of activists involving veterans, civilians,
professionals, and families of children with disabilities
organized to fight for the equal rights of persons with
disabilities to participate in society and access the
services needed to do so (Galer, 2015). New assistive
technologies were developed, including the first electric wheelchair invented by Canadian George Klein
to assist veterans who were injured in World War II
(Government of Canada, 2005).
Deinstitutionalization and the
Anti-Psychiatry Movement
In the 1960s and 1970s, a new social movement
toward deinstitutionalization in Canada began by
advocating for the removal of people from residential institutions and the replacement of these institutions with community-based services (Galer, 2015).
Community agencies and group homes (known today
as Associations for Community Living) were established to support persons with intellectual disabilities
(Canadian Association of Community Living, 2016).
The ideological roots of deinstitutionalization can
be traced to anti-psychiatry whose origins some argue
began with historical examples of psychiatry being
used as an oppressive arm of the state in Nazi Germany
and Soviet Russia (Furnham, 2015). Anti-psychiatry
took hold as a movement in the early 1950s as a result
of conflict within the field of psychiatry. Psychiatrists
using “talking cures” like psychoanalysis as treatment
were challenged by biological physical psychiatrists
who saw surgical and pharmacological treatment as
more effective and scientific (Furnham, 2015).
By the 1960s, the anti-psychiatry movement
focused on the use of psychiatry as a means of controlling and pathologizing social deviance (Furnham,
2015). The writings of sociologist Erving Goffman
(notably Asylums in 1961) and of Michel Foucault
provide a valuable critique of the use of power within
psychiatry and its effects on the labelling and stigmatization of persons with mental health issues
(Furnham, 2015). Issues of psychiatric processing
Institutionalized: Placed in
or confined to a residential
institution.
Compulsory Sterilization:
Government program that
forces or coerces the
sterilization of persons so that
they cannot have children;
often part of a eugenics
program to prevent the
reproduction of members of a
population who are deemed
undesirable.
Deinstitutionalization:
A social movement that
continues to reverse the
institutionalization of persons
with mental illness and
intellectual disabilities that
began in the late 19th and
early 20th centuries in Canada.
It involves a process of
removing residents from longterm institutions to integrated
community-based settings.
Anti-Psychiatry: A term
coined by David Cooper
in 1967 and reflective of a
movement that was critical of
and opposed to many forms
of psychiatric treatment,
institutionalization of persons
with mental illness and
intellectual disabilities, the
unequal power relationship
between psychiatrist and
patient, and the highly
subjective process for
diagnostic labelling.
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NEL CHAPTER 11 Ability 235
and control, and critiques of diagnostic labelling were
also highlighted in the writings of Thomas Szasz’s The
Myth of Mental Illness and David Cooper’s Psychiatry
and Anti-Psychiatry. In 1973, Stanford University professor and psychologist David Rosenhan’s famous
experiment and published research, On Being Sane in
Insane Places, raised questions and scepticism about
the validity of psychiatric diagnosis and became one
of the most famous anti-psychiatry studies of all time.
The Academy Award-winning film, One Flew Over the
Cuckoo’s Nest, became a classic that highlighted many
of the concerns within the anti-psychiatric movement,
including the existence of mental illness, the medicalization of madness, and the abuse of power by health
professionals within mental health institutions. This
included concerns around the power of health professionals to detain for indeterminate periods of time, the
prison-like environments of mental health facilities,
and the use of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), and
prefrontal lobotomies as treatment (Furnham, 2015).
Disability Human Rights Paradigm
The disability social movement arose in the 1970s as
a human rights-based response to the discrimination
that people with disabilities had historically faced in
Canada, and was premised on the inherent right for
all persons to be treated with human dignity (ARCH,
2013). One organization that has sought to address
these issues is the Council of Canadians with Disabilities, which is a coalition that defines itself as “a national
human rights organization of people with disabilities working for an accessible and inclusive Canada”
(Council of Canadians with Disabilities, 2007).
During the 1970s and 1980s, a number of significant pieces of new legislation were adopted at a
national and international level to ensure people with
disabilities were able to live and work as equal and
active participants in society (ARCH, 2013). In 1976,
the Canadian Human Rights Act gave Canadians with
disabilities the legal right to be free from discrimination (ARCH, 2013). The United Nations proclaimed
1981 the International Year of Disabled Persons, promoting their full and equal participation in society
and increasing public awareness and understanding
of issues faced (ARCH, 2013). The Federal Special
Committee on the Disabled and the Handicapped
published the Obstacles Report in 1981, outlining
130 recommendations to work toward the full participation and integration of persons with disabilities in
Canadian society (ARCH, 2013). In 1982, Canadians
were able to lobby to have disability included as protected ground within the Canadian Charter of Rights
and Freedoms, guaranteeing a constitutional right
under Section 15 to equal treatment and equal protection against discrimination:
(1) Every individual is equal before and under
the law and has the right to the equal protection and equal benefit of the law without
discrimination and, in particular, without discrimination based on race, national or ethnic
origin, colour, religion, sex, age, or mental or
physical disability.
(2) Subsection (1) does not preclude any law,
program, or activity that has as its object the
amelioration of conditions of disadvantaged
individuals or groups, including those that
are disadvantaged because of race, national
or ethnic origin, colour, religion, sex, age. or
mental or physical disability.
In addition to the guarantees of equal treatment
and protection from discrimination, the Charter
explicitly recognized mental disabilities. Until 1982,
Canadians with mental disabilities had limited protection (Office for Disability Issues HRDC, 2003).
Neoliberalism and Cutbacks
During the late 1980s and early 1990s, the disability
community in Canada was deeply affected by a global
recession, growing deficits, and concomitant changes
in the political climate (Galer, 2015). Deinstitutionalization continued under new ideological and fiscal purposes, including the neo-liberal privatization of care
and cutbacks in government spending. This period of
fiscal austerity hit hard for Canadians with disabilities as
social assistance rates were slashed, government grants
to disability organizations dwindled, and many disability rights organizations were disbanded (Galer, 2015).
The privatization of responsibility and cost of care
had a significant impact on families as caregivers. From
the 1980s until present day, families were cited as the
most common source of help for persons with disabilities in Canada (Statistics Canada, 2012). Caring for
children, parents, and other family members with disabilities can result in a great deal of pressure for caregivers and often impacts their employment status. In
addition to juggling family responsibilities, employment, child care, household chores, medical appointments, and caregiving, families with disabled children
struggle with increased financial pressures because of
additional costs and lost wages.
Entering the 21st Century
In 1992, the United Nations proclaimed December
3rd as International Day of Persons with Disabilities.
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236 CHAPTER 11 Ability NEL
In 2010, Canada ratified the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
(CRPD), which represented a new opportunity for all
levels of government to be proactive in eliminating
disadvantage and achieving full inclusion for persons
with disabilities (Brodsky, Day, & Peters, 2012). In
2014, Canada submitted its first report to the UN’s
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Committee, outlining federal and provincial
measures taken toward ensuring the rights of persons
with disabilities under the Convention (Galer, 2015).
The federal government was currently considering
a Canadians with Disabilities Act that would aid in
Canada’s implementation of the UN Convention on
the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. The volume
and influence of critical disabilities studies grew
across Canadian postsecondary institutions with
new interdisciplinary scholarly discourse emerging
during this period as well as the empowerment of
persons with disabilities to take control of their own
narratives and histories (Galer, 2015). But the issue
of poverty for persons with disabilities in Canada
remains a serious concern. In a Council of Canadians
with Disabilities (2016) research project, Disabling
Poverty, Enabling Citizenship, that was funded by the
Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council,
one key finding was that “throughout the working
years (15–64 years of age), people with disabilities
remain about twice as likely as those without disabilities to live with low income.”
DISABILITY
PERSPECTIVES
The Canadian government and its agencies use
many different definitions
of disability and consequently many different
criteria for assessing eligibility for programs
and services. The lack of
consistency among definitions of disability in
Canada can be attributed
in part to the different perspectives used in understanding this complex and
multidimensional concept. When interpreted
using a biomedical perspective, the definition of
disability is approached as
illness or impairment in function that is located within
the individual (Office for Disability Issues HRDC,
2003). Using this perspective, disability is viewed as
something objective that is fixed in an individual’s
body or mind and that can be measured in terms of
ability to perform specific tasks (Office for Disability
Issues HRDC, 2003). When defining disability using
a social perspective, the concept can be interpreted as
a socially constructed disadvantage that results in a
person’s social exclusion and possible violation of their
legal rights. There is clear evidence at an international
level that there is a movement toward including a social
perspective within a definition of disability. The United
Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities includes a social perspective when it defines
persons with disabilities as “those who have longterm physical, mental, intellectual or sensory impairments which in interaction with various barriers may
hinder their full and effective participation in society
on an equal basis” (United Nations, 2006). The United
Nation’s International Day of Persons with Disabilities
on December 3rd offers an opportunity to examine
the social, economic, physical, and attitudinal barriers
affecting one billion people every day worldwide.
How we define disability has evolved over the
years through different perspectives that will be
referred to as the biomedical perspective, functional
limitations perspective, socio-constructionist perspective, socio-economic perspective, legal rights
perspective, and the social inclusion perspective
(see Table 11.1). These perspectives have influenced
the approaches used to accommodate disability within
society, including the development of programs and
services and their eligibility criteria.
Biomedical Perspective
The biomedical perspective considers disability as an
impairment to an individual’s body or mind that is a
result of a health problem, illness, disease, or abnormality (Nixon, 1984). According to this perspective,
people with disabilities are sick and therefore require
help in the form of medical treatment and specialized care (Bickenbach, 1993). The approach used to
accommodate those with disabilities is to fix the individual’s impairment through medical interventions
focused on the illness or abnormality. An example of
this approach is reflected in the branch of psychology
referred to as abnormal psychology—a term that
pathologizes mental health issues as medically or psychologically abnormal. Criticism of this perspective is
that it “locates the defect in a person’s body or mind,
and that person may be defined as defective, abnormal
and by extension biologically or mentally inferior”
United Nations
Convention on the
Rights of Persons with
Disabilities (CRPD): A
human rights instrument
adopted by the United
Nations in 2006 for the
purpose of protecting the
human rights and dignity of
persons with disabilities;
signatories are required to
ensure that people with
disabilities are equal under
the law.
Impairment: According to
the biomedical perspective, a
medical condition that leads
to disability; according to
functional perspective, it is
any loss or abnormality of
physiological, psychological,
or anatomical structure or
function, whether permanent
or temporary.
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NEL CHAPTER 11 Ability 237
(Office for Disability Issues HRDC, 2003). In viewing
disabilities solely as a medical issue, this perspective
ignores social and environmental factors that affect
people with disabilities. This can result in the social
marginalization and isolation of people with disabilities because this model believes in a service-based
approach that focuses on caring for deficiencies using
specially trained health professionals (Kretzmann &
McKnight, 1993).
Functional Limitations Perspective
The functional limitations perspective, like the biomedical perspective, uses objective standards and is
rooted in the concept that impairment of the mind or
body is the direct cause of disability (Office for Disability Issues HRDC, 2003). This perspective is used
to quantify the degree of disability a person might
have and to measure his or her functional limitations
(Office for Disability Issues HRDC, 2003). What distinguishes this perspective from the biomedical one is
that it utilizes social and environmental criteria in the
evaluation of the individual’s functional limitations:
“Disability is seen as influenced not only by the characteristics of impairments, such as type and severity,
but also by how the individual defines a given situation and reacts to it, and how others define that situation through their reactions and expectations” (Office
for Disability Issues HRDC, 2003, p. 6). An example
of a program that utilizes the functional limitations
perspective is the Ontario Disability Support Program. If a person with a disability living in Ontario is
applying for financial support through this program,
the doctor would be required to complete a medical
TABLE 11.1
Disability Perspectives
Perspective Approach to Disability Critique of Perspective
Biomedical Considers disability as an impairment to
an individual’s body or mind that is a result
of a health problem, illness, disease, or
abnormality.
Ignores social and environmental factors
that affect people with disabilities.
Functional
limitations
Quantifies the type and degree of disability
a person might have to measure his or her
functional limitations and ability to perform
certain tasks.
Focuses on individual inability; creates
inconsistency in the determination
of eligibility for federal programs;
approaches disability as pathology
(abnormalcy).
Socioconstructionist
Disability is a concept we socially construct
as different from the norm; locates
disablement issues within society.
Its exclusive focus on the social neglects
issues of the physical body and mind.
Socio-economic Focus on inclusion of people with disabilities
within the economic framework of a society;
goal of programs is to make people with
disabilities more employable.
Does not address impairment nor
process of stigmatization experienced
by people with disabilities.
Legal rights Focus is on rights to full participation
and non-discrimination for people with
disabilities using a human rights and social
justice paradigm; perspective used by
disability social movement.
Is sometimes critiqued for its neglect of
individualized experiences of body and
mind (medical model) and functional
limitation.
Social inclusion Focus is on contributions all people can
make to the community as a whole as
valued and respected members; challenges
the notion of disabled and non-disabled
that reinforce an us-and-them mentality.
Sometimes fails to acknowledge
differences arising from intersectionality
of identities (e.g., women with
disabilities, Aboriginal people with
disabilities, people with disabilities from
visible minority communities).
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238 CHAPTER 11 Ability NEL
assessment that includes a Health Status Report and
Activities of Daily Living Index. But in addition to
the medical assessment, the applicant completes a
Self-Report Form that allows him or her to define and
describe the situation and detail how the disability
affects personal care, participation in the community,
and ability to work.
Critiques of the functional limitation perspective have suggested that the attempts to quantify the
type and severity of disabilities have contributed to
the inconsistency in eligibility criteria for government programs for people with disabilities. Dr. Blake
Woodside of the Canadian Psychiatric Association
notes that the current system discriminates against
those with mental illness because “the use of primitive efforts, phrases such as ‘almost all of the time,’
‘greater than 90 percent’ or ‘prolonged,’ simply does
not address the complex issue of characterizing psychiatric disability” (Office for Disability Issues HRDC,
2003, p. 52). The functional limitations perspective
fails to account for recurrent, cyclic, or episodic disabilities, or for the variation in lived experiences of
people with disabilities. The other criticism of this
perspective is its focus on inability and not ability.
Using a standard of “normalcy” for functional assessment, disability is considered pathology, and those
people who live outside of these standards become
disadvantaged (Oliver, 1990).
Socio-Constructionist Perspective
According to this perspective, disability is something
that is socially constructed by the ability-orientated
and ability-dominant society we live in (Office for
Disability Issues HRDC, 2003). The pathologization of disability is something that we create socially,
and when it is reinforced through ableism, it often
results in social isolation and marginalization (Bickenbach, 1993). Stereotypes of people with disabilities
focus on what we perceive to be different from the
“norm”—with the result that similar needs for dignity, friendship, hope for the future, and valuation in
the community can then be overlooked (Kretzmann
& McKnight, 1993). Our belief about what is normal
becomes embedded in our thoughts and is used to
legitimize social policies (Oliver, 1990). Ron Mace,
founder of the Centre for Universal Design, discusses
how socially constructed concepts of normalcy can
disadvantage those who fail to measure up:
We discount people
who are less than what
we popularly consider
to be “normal.” To
be “normal” is to be
perfect, capable, competent and independent.
Unfortunately, designers in our society also
mistakenly assume that everyone fits this
definition of “normal.” This just is not the
case. (Social Planning Council of Kitchener
Waterloo, 2001, p. 1)
According to the socio-constructionist perspective, if society constructs disability as inability, then
we limit human potential.
One of the contributions of the socio-constructionist perspective is that it locates disablement issues
within society and there is the opportunity, therefore, to socially construct meaning and value around
abilities (rather than disabilities) that are manifest
in ways different from what is socially defined as
“normal.” A critique of the socio-constructionist
perspective of disability is its exclusive focus on the
social neglects issues of the physical body and mind
(Hoyle, 2004).
Socio-Economic Perspective
The socio-economic perspective focuses on the inclusion of people with disabilities in the economic framework of society through policies and programs (Hoyle,
2004). Poverty is a significant issue for people with
disabilities. According to Statistics Canada’s Canadian
Survey on Disability (2012), less than half (47 percent) of persons with disabilities aged 15 to 64 were
employed. Compared with persons without disabilities, those with disabilities were significantly more
likely to be unemployed or not in the labour force
(Government of Canada, 2015; Statistics Canada,
2013). For those people with disabilities who must
then rely on disability income support programs,
they often find themselves stigmatized and faced with
financial limitations. A forum called “Unlocking the
Possible” examined the issue of civic participation
for people with disabilities and participants discussed
poverty as a barrier:
Disability dollars don’t go far.… For people
receiving disability assistance from the government, their disability assistance didn’t go
far. The rent that some people paid was more
than what was allotted by disability assistance. This meant there was little or no money
left for other activities so people stayed home.
(Hoyle, 2004)
In its 2014 report to the United Nations
Committee on the Convention on the Rights of
Persons with Disabilities, federal, provincial, and territorial governments noted that poverty rates among
Pathologization:
Characterization as medically
or psychologically abnormal.
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NEL CHAPTER 11 Ability 239
persons with disabilities in Canada remain a challenge, as does ensuring more disabled Canadians
find work (Government of Canada, 2014). The
Council of Canadians with Disabilities in its
report, As a Matter of Fact: Poverty and Disability
in Canada (2009),highlights a further relationship
between the types of disability a person has and
the likelihood of that person living in poverty (see
Figure 11.2).
The goal of the socio-economic perspective is to
ensure economic well-being of persons with disabilities, and one of the strategies used by governments
to do this is to make people with disabilities more
employable (Bickenbach, 1993). There are a number
of government programs at various jurisdictional
levels that are designed to assist with employment barriers. Two examples of federal initiatives include the
Opportunities Fund and the CPP Disability Vocational
Rehabilitation Program. The Opportunities Fund
is a federal government program that uses a socioeconomic perspective in helping people with disabilities find employment or self-employment
(Government of Canada, 2016). The Canada Pension
Plan Disability Vocational Rehabilitation Program
offers training support and job search services to
recipients of Canada Pension Plan (CPP) Disability
Benefits to help them return to work (Government of
Canada, 2016).
One criticism of the socio-economic perspective is
that it is rooted in supporting individuals who experience activity limitations and participation restrictions
in specific environments such as work, but it does not
acknowledge how the socio-economic environment
can create disability (Hoyle, 2004). While this perspective can change the experience of disability in an
employment context, it “does not change the impairment or the process of stigmatization experienced
by people with limited functional abilities” (Hoyle,
2004, p. 8).
Legal Rights Perspective
The legal rights perspective approaches disability as
a human rights and social justice issue. The primary
concerns of this perspective are the rights to full participation, equity, and non-discrimination for people
with disabilities. Important is the fact that “equality”
is not defined legally as treating all people the same
way; the law recognizes that special measures or special programs are sometimes necessary to correct disadvantage. Canada has adopted a number of laws to
ensure that people with disabilities are able to fully
participate in society and are protected against discrimination, including the Canadian Human Rights
Act in 1977 and the Canadian Charter of Rights
and Freedoms in 1982. In 2010, Canada ratified the
United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons
with Disabilities and was required to report internationally on the progressive implementation of rights
(ARCH, 2013).
One of the critiques of the legal rights perspective is that laws and human rights machinery cannot
30.00%
25.00%
20.00%
15.00%
10.00%
5.00%
0.00%
9.70%
14.40% 15.20% 15.20%
24.10%
10.30%
17.10%
22.30%
No Disability
Any Disability
Mobility
Pain
Communicating
Hearing
Seeing
Cognitive or Psychological
FIGURE 11.2
Type of Disability and Poverty Rates
Note: “Cognitive or Psychological” includes learning, memory, or developmental/intellectual disability, or psychiatric diagnosis.
Source: Adapted from Council of Canadians with Disabilities, “As a Matter of Fact: Poverty and Disability in Canada.”
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240 CHAPTER 11 Ability NEL
alone eliminate barriers and reduce discrimination
for people with disabilities (Brodsky, Day, & Peters,
2012). In a famous Supreme Court decision (Eldridge
v. British Columbia [Attorney General], 1997), the court
ruled that failure by the province to pay for and provide sign language interpretation during pregnancy
and childbirth to the three appellants who were deaf
was discriminatory, as the government had an obligation to address their needs as a disadvantaged group,
and by failing to do so, denied them equal access to
public medical services (Office for Disability Issues
HRDC, 2003). In 1999, the Supreme Court of Canada,
in two rulings, referred to as the Meiorin and Grismer
decisions, reinforced the duty to accommodate individuals who cannot meet an employment or serviced
delivery standard for any reason related to a ground
protected by the Canadian Human Rights Act, such
as disability.
Despite all the conventions, laws, and legal decisions made by tribunals and courts, the question
remains as to why the largest part of the caseload of
many human rights commissions continues to be complaints dealing with disability (Brodsky, Day, & Peters,
2012). The complaints to the Canadian Human Rights
Commission (CHRC) consistently identify disability
as the predominant reason for which a person was discriminated against (see Figure 11.3). In 2015, almost
60 percent of the complaints received by the CHRC
were disability related (Canadian Human Rights
Commission, 2016). Forty percent of these were
related to mental health issues; this means that almost
one quarter of all the complaints received in 2015 by
the CHRC were related to mental health (Canadian
Human Rights Commission, 2016).
Clearly, discrimination faced by people with disabilities is an enduring facet of their lived experience
in Canada. While the legal rights perspective on disability is important in terms of protection of individual
legal rights, it has also been important at a broader
societal level, as it has served as the impetus for disability rights groups. The major criticism of this model
is that its focus on the common experience of discrimination fails to consider the individual experiences of
one’s body as unique and diverse (Wendell, 1989). In
its exclusive focus on legal and social aspects of disability, this perspective neglects aspects of the medical
model of disability that need to be considered, as well
as the lived realities of the physical and mental experiences of disability, such as living with pain and limitations (Hoyle, 2004).
58%
16% 14% 13% 12% 10%
Grounds of discrimination
9% 8%
3% 3%
0
Disabilities
Ethnic Origin
Race
Sex
Family Status
Age
Colour
Religion
Sexual Orientation
Other
10
20
30
40
50
60
Percentage (%)
70
FIGURE 11.3
Grounds of Discrimination Complaints Received by Canadian Human
Rights Commission 2015
Note: Total number of grounds cited exceeds the total number of received complaints because some complaints dealt with more than one ground.
Source: Canadian Human Rights Commission 2015 Annual Report, Canadian Human Rights Commission, 2016.
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NEL CHAPTER 11 Ability 241
Social Inclusion Perspective
Many Canadians with disabilities experience barriers to their full and equal participation in Canadian
society (Council of Canadians with Disabilities, 2007).
All of the other perspectives differentiate people with
disabilities from people without disabilities. Social
accommodation then focuses on these differences
(Hoyle, 2004). The us-versus-them dichotomy can
lead to ableism, which excludes and discriminates
against those who don’t measure up to societal norms
of ability:
PWD’s [Persons with disabilities] must be
seen for who we are: Regular people, neither pathetic poster children nor superheroes
“overcoming” the unimaginable. And regular
people need regular things: transportation, be
it bus or wheelchair; help around the house,
be it from their kids or personal assistant;
information, be it gleaned from print or sign
language or Braille; relief from pain, be it an
aspirin or a prescription for morphine; and
a decent standard of living, be it from a job
or a government check. When all people are
provided with such necessities, they will be
assured the opportunity for a good quality of
life. This is what PWDs deserve and require—
tangible assistance that provides freedom,
independence, and control over our lives
as disabled people, not adulation, pity, or
encouragement to focus on a cure that will
make us nondisabled. (Wachsler, 2007, p. 14)
In inclusive settings, people with disabilities
“have the opportunity to discredit the negative stereotypes and challenge the notions of disabled and
non-disabled that reinforce the boundaries between
sameness and difference” (Hoyle, 2004). Models for
social inclusion recognize that a difference approach
separates and disengages persons with disabilities
from active participation in their communities. Social
inclusion is premised on the belief that all members of a community have a valuable contribution
to make (Laidlaw Foundation, 2002–2003): “A true
community is only able to grow and strengthen itself
by including all of its members and finding room
for them to develop their capacities within its own
pattern of growth” (Kretzmann & McKnight, 1993).
The social inclusion perspective is sometimes criticized for failing to account for the complexity and
intersectionality of aspects of identity, such as women
with disabilities, Indigenous people with disabilities,
and people with disabilities from visible minority
communities.
10 FACTS AND FIGURES ABOUT
HAVING A DISABILITY IN
CANADA
1. One in Seven Canadians Lives with a Disability
According to Statistics Canada (2012), almost 14 percent
of Canadians over the age of 15, that’s 3.8 million individuals, reported having a disability that limited their
daily activities.
2. Half Live with Severe Disabilities
Of the 3.8 million Canadians who identified as having
a disability, 32 percent were classified as having a mild
disability; 20 percent, a moderate disability; 23 percent,
a severe disability; and 26 percent, a very severe disability (Statistics Canada, 2012).
3. Pain Most Common Type of Disability in Canadian Adults
Pain is the most prevalent type of disability reported
by Canadian adults from among the 11 types of disability included in the Canadian Survey on Disability
(2012). (See Figure 11.4.) Next to pain, flexibility and
mobility are also common types of disability among
Canadians (Canadian Survey on Disability, 2012).
4. Age Matters When It Comes to Disabilities
The 2012 Canadian Survey on Disability reveals
that disability rates increase steadily with age. It also
reveals that the most common types of disability also
vary by age. Among school-aged boys and girls from
5 to 14 years old, learning disabilities were the most
common type of disability (Statistics Canada, 2012).
For Canadians between the ages of 15 to 24, mental/
psychological disabilities were the most commonly
reported type of disability (Statistics Canada, 2012).
Among those aged 45 to 64, the most commonly
reported disabilities were pain, flexibility, and mobility
(Statistics Canada, 2012). Seniors reported these same
three types of disabilities but at higher rates (Statistics Canada, 2012). Hearing and memory disabilities
were also more prevalent among the senior population (Statistics Canada, 2012).
5. Family Members Are Primary Caregivers for Persons with Disabilities
Most Canadians can expect at some point in their
lives to help a family member or a friend with a disability or with problems related to aging (Turcotte,
2013). For Canadians
with disabilities who did
not live alone, almost
80 percent reported
they received help with
their everyday activities
from family members
(Turcotte, 2013). For
Accommodation: The
specialized design of
products, environments, and
individualized strategies,
which are uniquely adapted to
an identified limitation for the
purpose of ensuring access.
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242 CHAPTER 11 Ability NEL
Canadians with disabilities who lived alone, 56 percent
reported that they received help with everyday activities from family members (Turcotte, 2013). Significant help was also received from friends, neighbours,
and volunteers. While there are many benefits to
having family members as caregivers, there can also
be negative impacts on these caregivers in terms of
their physical and mental health, reduced ability
to participate in the workforce, pressures on personal finances, and limited time for other activities
(Turcotte, 2013).
6. More Help Needed with Daily Living Activities
The most commonly reported help received by Canadians with disabilities includes assistance getting to
appointments, running errands, and doing everyday
housework, particularly heavy household chores (Statistics Canada, 2012). The Canadian Survey on Disability (2012) found that unmet needs for daily living
rose with the severity of a person’s disability. “The
prevalence of receiving help increased with disability
severity, but so did the prevalence of needing but not
receiving help” (Statistics Canada, 2012).
7. Less Likely to Graduate
Canadians with disabilities were less likely than Canadians without disabilities to be high school or university graduates (Statistics Canada, 2012). According
to the Canadian Survey on Disability (2012), the
percentage of university graduates declines as the
severity of disability increases. Some key barriers cited
by postsecondary students with disabilities include
difficulties with learning accommodations, transportation, housing, finances, and unsupportive and inaccessible learning environments (Anzovino, 2012).
The Canadian Survey on Disability (2012) found that
for students with disabilities,
one-third (34 percent) reported that they took
fewer courses/subjects; 30 percent reported
that it took them longer to achieve their
present level of education; 30 percent discontinued their studies; and 23 percent reported
that their education was interrupted for long
periods. About 40 percent indicated that
people avoided or excluded them at school,
and 27 percent experienced bullying.
8. More People with Disabilities Are Unemployed
and Underemployed
In addition to being more likely to live in poverty,
people with disabilities have a long history of high
unemployment and underemployment in Canada
(Government of Canada, 2014). Half of working-age
adults with disabilities were employed (47 percent),
compared to 74 percent of their contemporaries
without disabilities (Statistics Canada, 2012).
9. Many Companies Are Not Hiring People with
Disabilities
In a survey of Canadian small businesses conducted in
2013 by the BMO Financial Group, only 1 in 3 small
business owners hired people with disabilities, and the
majority of small businesses surveyed had never hired
9.7%
7.6% 7.2%
3.9% 3.5% 3.2% 2.7% 2.3% 2%
1%
0
Pain-related
Flexibility
Mobility
Mental Health
Dexterity
Hearing
Seeing
Learning
Memory
Developmental
2
4
6
8
10
12
Percentage (%)
Prevalence
FIGURE 11.4
Prevalence of Disabilities by Type, Canadians Aged 15 Years or Older
Source: Statistics Canada, Canadian Survey on Disability 2012, http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/89-654-x/89-654-x2013002-eng.htm. Reproduced and distributed on
an “as is” basis with the permission of Statistics Canada.
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NEL CHAPTER 11 Ability 243
a person with a visible or invisible disability (BMO
Financial Group, 2013). The survey found that one of
the major reasons why small businesses did not hire
persons with disabilities was because of unfounded
myths and misunderstandings about their capabilities
(BMO Financial Group, 2013).
10. Workers with Disabilities Meet Employer
Expectations
In a survey conducted by BMO Financial Group
in 2012, more than 75 percent of employers who
recruited persons with disabilities to work for them
were happy with their performance (BMO Financial
Group, 2013). There are also examples of Canadian
employers who are creating unique employment
opportunities for persons with disabilities. Take, for
example, the restaurants O.Noir in Montreal and
Toronto that provide a “dining in the dark” experience for customers. All servers are legally blind. As
the Canadian National Institute for the Blind (2016)
notes, only one-third of Canadians with vision loss
are employed and almost half of Canadians with
vision loss are living in poverty. So companies like
O.Noir are meeting the employment needs of persons with vision loss by hiring those most capable
of working in the dark. “It is a true ‘transfer of
trust’ and an amazing approach to raise awareness about blindness and disabilities in general”
(O.Noir, 2016).
THE CONTEXT OF DISABILITY
WITHIN OUR SOCIAL
ENVIRONMENT
When we conceptualize disability as something different from what is “normal,” then the approach
we use in dealing with disability issues is one that
employs individual accommodations. These accommodations are designed to meet what is conceived of
as a “normal” standard. When we conceptualize disability as a universal experience, then the approach we
use employs the goals of accessibility and social inclusion for everyone. For any approach to be effective,
it is important to begin with the lived experiences of
people with disabilities.
The Difference Approach and
Accommodation
When disability is constructed as “difference from
the norm”—that is, different from the “normal” body
or “normal” mind—then the approach used is one
that focuses on how to accommodate difference. This
approach maintains an us-versus-them mentality and
differentiates people with disabilities from people
without disabilities. An accommodation approach
often requires people with disabilities to be their
own advocates in initiating adaptations for their
unique needs; it often results in reactive and retrofit
solutions.
Using the familiar context of the postsecondary
classroom, what does equal access to learning through
individualized accommodations mean for the college or university student with disabilities? Using the
approach of recognizing disability as difference from
the norm, individualized accommodations rely on the
student to initiate the process of having their unique
needs met (Dosis, Coffey, Gravel, Ali, & Condra,
2012). Students have to identify themselves as having
a disability and provide documentation to their professors and instructors as well as to the institutional
service supporting students with disabilities. One of
the barriers that can be created for students through
individualized accommodations is that this approach
can leave them feeling as though they are asking for a
special favour (Dosis, Coffey, Gravel, Ali, & Condra,
2012). Students may be reluctant to request accommodations as they can feel labelled in a negative way
by this process. As one college student states:
I was bullied in high school because of my
learning disability. People called me names
like “tard and “slow” and I was pushed and
punched by a group of girls on a regular basis.
They even bullied other people who tried to
be friends with me, so I basically spent four
years in high school alone. I went away to
college so I could have a fresh start. I just
want to fit in, so there is no way I am going
to label myself as a student with a disability. I
would rather fail than go through that again.
(Anzovino, 2012)
Bullying behaviour is rooted in power and aggression and is often based on perceived differences in
appearance, sexual orientation, ethnicity, or ability. If
disabilities are perceived as different from the norm of
ability, then they can reinforce an us-versus-them mentality that can create a fertile environment for bullying
behaviour. Violence in Canadian schools against children with disabilities is a prevalent reality. In Abilities
Magazine, Melissa Martz details her childhood experiences with bullying:
Bullies can find any reason to target someone—
maybe because he or she wears glasses, is overweight or wears hand-me-downs. Children
with disabilities are frequently singled out for
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244 CHAPTER 11 Ability NEL
being different. They may speak differently,
walk differently, use assistive devices or have
difficulty with social interaction—all of which
bullies can turn into jokes…. It happened to
me. While growing up in Kitchener, Ontario,
I was tormented because I stuttered (something that I still struggle with) and required
special education for math and language arts.
(Martz, 2008–2009)
The case of Mitchell Wilson has garnered media
attention around the issue of bullying children with
disabilities. Mitchell Wilson was an 11-year-old boy
from Pickering, Ontario, who had muscular dystrophy. Children at his school bullied him socially
and physically. Prior to testifying in court, Mitchell
committed suicide (Kennedy, 2011). This tragedy has
highlighted the issue of bullying of children with disabilities. Approximately 30 percent of parents with
school-aged children with disabilities report that their
children have been physically assaulted by other children at school, and this number increases to 38 percent for children with severe or very severe disabilities
(Statistics Canada, 2007).
In the context of the postsecondary classroom,
individualized accommodations in this academic
setting can result in retrofit solutions after the program, curriculum, course, and instruction have been
designed (Dosis, Coffey, Gravel, Ali, & Condra, 2012).
Accommodations such as providing a student with
more time to write a test or arranging for a note-taker
can become a “one-size fits all” adaptive measure
that can ensure equality but not equitable access to
education.
When access in society is based on norms of
ability, the danger is “it can lead to ableism in policy
and practice as it negates the commonalities of our
shared lived experiences” (Hoyle, 2004). What if,
instead of measuring people against norms of ability, a
society reframed itself on a universal acknowledgment
that all members can, over the course of their lifetime,
expect to experience disability? What if, based
on this viewpoint, we
decided to create a society
where everyone would
feel included, would be
able to develop their own
capabilities, and would be
valued and contributing
members of society based
on who they really are and
not on some normative
ideal physicality? Picture
This… looks at the work of fashion photographer
Rick Guidotti as he challenges the industry’s notion of
ideal physicality and beauty.
In creating inclusive environments, people can
challenge negative stereotypes and the assumption
that people with disabilities are a separate social
group because of differences in ability (Hoyle, 2004).
Social inclusion challenges the “the notions of disabled and non-disabled that reinforce the boundaries
between sameness and difference” (Hoyle, 2004).
Social inclusion as a perspective helps us to move
from accommodation as special treatment for people
with disabilities to accessibility as equitable treatment for all.
Moving from Accommodations to
Accessibility
When developing inclusive policy and practice, it is
important that policy and practice be premised on
the understanding that accessibility is multifaceted.
Accessibility can mean different things to different
people based on their experiences of the body, their
stage of life, their physical environment, and so on.
Creating a society where all members can participate fully in their community is one of the goals of
accessibility.
In some universities and colleges that use an
accommodation model, you can see students with
disabilities having to self-identify with teachers to
request accommodations that focus on their differences. Common examples of accommodation include
extending time allotted for a test or arranging for a
note-taker during classes. Students with disabilities
can be reluctant to self-identify, especially when disabilities are invisible or temporary, because of the stigmatization and disadvantages that result from being
labelled as different.
A study entitled “Unlocking the Possible” (Hoyle,
2004) is an interesting model of how a municipality
might work at becoming more accessible and inclusive to people with disabilities. At a citizen’s forum,
barriers to social inclusion and full participation in
civic life were identified:
● Experiences of the body, including fear of ridicule
over unpredictable body movements and behaviours, variation in physical strength and energy,
and personal care needs.
● Access to physical space, including both the
accessibility of the space itself and how people
move within that space in terms of the amount
of space, placement of items, transportation, and
types of devices available for mobility.
Accessibility: The degree
to which a product, device,
service, or environment is
available to as many people as
possible.
Barriers: Policies or practices
that prevent full and equal
participation in society;
barriers can be physical, social,
attitudinal, organizational,
technological, or informational.
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NEL CHAPTER 11 Ability 245
● Access to time needed for daily routine, equipment use, and full participation when physical or
cognitive issues require this.
● Access to information, such as the technological
adaptations people need to listen and communicate.
● Access to services, including equitable access to
employment, recreation, and healthcare services.
● Access to social networking opportunities, which
include being able to make social connections,
having a sense of belonging to the community,
feeling valued for one’s contributions, feeling a
sense of interdependence and reciprocity with
other citizens, and experiencing a people-first
approach (Hoyle, 2004).
This study highlights that accessibility is a multifaceted concept whose practice would eliminate those barriers and would hold the promise of community where all
members can fully participate in civic life. Accessibility
is a model for practising diversity as a framework for
equity and social inclusion at a municipal level.
Universal Design
Accessibility and inclusion can begin with universal
design, using design principles which can help to eliminate the need for adaptation or specialized accommodation. You may have heard these ideas referred to as
barrier-free design, accessible design, adaptable design,
trans-generational design, and inclusive design. Universal design considers all members of the community
and plans for the full participation of all members. Universal design has been utilized in architecture, urban
planning, ergonomics, and education. There are seven
basic principles of universal design that originated as
architectural standards in the design of physical spaces:
1. Equitable use. The design is useful and marketable
to any group of users.
2. Flexibility in use. The design accommodates a wide
range of individual preferences and abilities.
3. Simple and intuitive use. Use of the design is easy to
understand, regardless of the user’s experience, knowledge, language skill, or current concentration levels.
4. Perceptible information. The design communicates necessary information effectively to the user
regardless of ambient conditions or the user’s
sensory abilities.
5. Tolerance of error. The design minimizes hazards
and adverse consequences of accidental or unintended actions.
6. Low physical effort. The design can be used effectively
and comfortably and with a minimum of fatigue.
7. Size and space for approach and use. Appropriate
size and space is provided for approach, reach,
manipulation, and use, regardless of user’s body
size, posture, or mobility (Connell et al., 1997)*.
Universal Design and
Postsecondary Education
The focus of accessible education is to create sustainable access based on the following principles (Dosis,
Coffey, Gravel, Ali, & Condra, 2012):
● dignity for students, by maintaining privacy and
not singling them out;
● equitable opportunities and advantages for all
students for learning, not just for information;
● independence for students, so they can complete
learning tasks without specialized help; and
● integration, so that each student is able to benefit
from the same learning experiences.
Universal Design for Learning (UDL) and
Universal Instructional Design (UID) are educational frameworks used for program development,
curriculum design, and delivery for the purpose of
creating inclusive and accessible learning opportunities for all learners. UDL and UID are learner-centred
approaches, which recognize “one size does not fit
all.” Being purposeful in design and intent, UDL and
UID strategically address the diverse learning needs of
all students by minimizing barriers and maximizing
learning opportunities for all students. Universal
design emphasizes flexibility in curriculum design; it
uses multiple modes of engaging students, presenting
content, and assessing comprehension; and it utilizes
technology to maximize equitable learning opportunities for all students (Dosis, Coffey, Gravel, Ali, &
Condra, 2012).
Universal Design for
Learning
Universal Design for
Learning (UDL) assists in
creating learning objectives, methods of instruction, course materials,
learning activities, and
methods of assessment
that work for everyone.
UDL is not “a single,
one-size-fits-all solution but rather flexible
Universal design:
“The design of products,
environments, programs and
services to be usable by
all people, to the greatest
extent possible, without
the need for adaptation
or specialized design (but
does not exclude assistive
devices for particular groups
of persons with disabilities
where this is needed)”
(United Nations, 2006).
*Copyright © 1997 NC State University, The Center for Universal Design.The Center for Universal Design (1997). The Principles of Universal Design, Version 2.0.
Raleigh, NC: North Carolina State University.”
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246 CHAPTER 11 Ability NEL
I. Provide Multiple Means of
Representation
II. Provide Multiple Means of
Action and Expression
III. Provide Multiple Means of
Engagement
1: Provide options for perception
1.1 Offer ways of customizing the
display of information
1.2 Offer alternatives for auditory
information
1.3 Offer alternatives for visual
information
4: Provide options for physical action
4.1 Vary the methods for response
and navigation
4.2 Optimize access to tools and
assistive technologies
7: Provide options for recruiting
interest
7.1 Optimize individual choice and
autonomy
7.2 Optimize relevance, value, and
authenticity
7.3 Minimize threats and distractions
5: Provide options for expression and
communication
5.1 Use multiple media for communication
5.2 Use multiple tools for construction
and composition
5.3 Build !uencies with graduated levels
of support for practice and performance
2: Provide options for language,
mathematical expressions, and symbols
2.1 Clarify vocabulary and symbols
2.2 Clarify syntax and structure
2.3 Support decoding of text,
mathematical notation, and symbols
2.4 Promote understanding across
languages
2.5 Illustrate through multiple media
Resourceful, knowledgeable learners Strategic, goal-directed learners Purposeful, motivated learners
8: Provide options for sustaining effort
and persistence
8.1 Heighten salience of goals and
objectives
8.2 Vary demands and resources to
optimize challenge
8.3 Foster collaboration and community
8.4 Increase mastery-oriented feedback
6: Provide options for executive functions
6.1 Guide appropriate goal-setting
6.2 Support planning and strategy
development
6.3 Facilitate managing information and
resources
6.4 Enhance capacity for monitoring
progress
3: Provide options for comprehension
3.1 Activate or supply background
knowledge
3.2. Highlight patterns, critical features,
big ideas, and relationships
3.3 Guide information processing,
visualization, and manipulation
3.4 Maximize transfer and generalization
9: Provide options for self-regulation
9.1 Promote expectations and beliefs
that optimize motivation
9.2 Facilitate personal coping skills and
strategies
9.3 Develop self-assessment and
re!ection
FIGURE 11.5
Universal Design for Learning Guidelines
Source: © 2011 by CAST. All rights reserved. www.cast.org, www.udlcenter.org.
approaches that can be customized and adjusted for
individual needs” (National Centre on Universal
Design for Learning, 2014). UDL engages students
through multiple and flexible ways of learning and
expressing what they know. The three main principles of UDL developed by the Center for Applied Special Technology (CAST, 2011) are an evidence-based
approach to improving the presentation of information, the engagement of learners, and the creation of
flexible assessment and evaluation. These principles
include providing multiple means of representation,
providing multiple means of action and expression,
and providing multiple means of engagement.
(See Figure 11.5.)
Universal Instructional Design (UID)
Universal Instructional Design is an educational
framework that utilizes the seven principles of Universal Design tailored to creating more inclusive,
equitable, and accessible learning environments. In
the familiar context of the postsecondary classroom,
Universal Instructional Design is also a proactive
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NEL CHAPTER 11 Ability 247
way to remove barriers to learning at the outset, as
opposed to a retrofit solution after the fact, thereby
reducing the need for individual accommodations
(Dosis, Coffey, Gravel, Ali, & Condra, 2012). This
proactive approach designs curriculum and instruction to meet the diverse learning styles and needs
of students (Dosis, Coffey, Gravel, Ali, & Condra,
2012). The Seven Principles of UID describe how
instructional materials and activities should be
accessible and fair, flexible, explicit, straightforward,
and consistent (Durham College, 2016). The Seven
Principles of UID also describe how the learning
environment should be supportive, minimize unnecessary physical effort, and accommodate students
and multiple teaching methods (Durham College,
2016).
MENTAL HEALTH AND STIGMA
One in five Canadians experiences a mental health
problem (Mental Health Commission of Canada,
2012). Most Canadians can expect to be affected by
mental health issues directly or indirectly through
family, friends, or co-workers (Mental Health Commission of Canada, 2012). And yet despite how
common mental illness is, stigmatization of and dicrimination against persons with mental health issues
is widespread.
One quarter of all human rights complaints
received in 2015 by the Canadian Human Rights
Commission were related to discrimination based
on mental health (CHRC, 2016). Some of the most
serious consequences can be evidenced in the fact
that some people with serious mental health issues are
represented in the statistic that every day in Canada,
almost 11 people end their lives through suicide
(Canadian Association for Suicide Prevention, 2016).
For persons with mental health issues, stigma
comes from the negative stereotypes and labels
associated with having a mental illness, and discrimination is the behaviour that results from this
(Canadian Mental Health Association, 2016). Stigma
is one of the major reasons why more than 60 percent
of Canadians with mental health issues won’t seek
the help they need (Mental Health Commission of
Canada, 2012). The stigma attached to mental health
Second-year Journalism students at Niagara College won the Emerge Media
Award in the category of Multimedia Production for their work on Crisis
on Campus, a website, iamnotok.ca, that addresses the topic of depression
and anxiety in college and university students. Results of a recent survey of
more than 25 000 Ontario college and university students conducted by
the Ontario University and College Health Association (OUCHA) reported
65 percent of students experienced overwhelming anxiety and 46 percent
reported feeling so depressed they had difficulty functioning. Some
mental health professionals are suggesting we have a crisis on college and
university campuses. Do you agree? What is your college or university doing
to address and support those with mental health issues?
PICTURE THIS…
Courtesy of Niagara News
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248 CHAPTER 11 Ability NEL
conditions is so pervasive that it can affect all aspects
of a person’s life, from employment, housing, and
education to feelings of self-worth and interpersonal
relationships with family and friends (Canadian
Mental Health Association, 2016). In a study by
the Canadian Medical Association, only 49 percent
of Canadians indicated they would socialize with a
friend who had a serious mental health issue (Bell
Let’s Talk, 2016).
Many myths contribute to the stigmatization of
persons with mental health issues. One very common
misperception that is perpetuated by the media and
within popular culture is that people with mental
illness are typically violent. According to evidence,
people with mental health issues are more likely to be
the victims of crime, bullying, hate, and discrimination (Mental Health Commission of Canada, 2012).
Stigma associated with mental health issues
can be reduced. This is key to improving individual
health outcomes and making improvements in mental
health systems. “Reducing stigma requires a change
in behaviours and attitudes towards acceptance,
respect and equitable treatment of people with mental
health problems and mental illnesses” (Mental Health
Commission of Canada, 2012). Courtesy of Bell Canada
There are many strategies being utilized to
reduce stigma. New systems and service strategies
are emerging from coalitions of stakeholders. Public
education and awareness campaigns are being used
to target the fear of mental health as something
“abnormal.” We see examples of celebrities such
as Demi Lovato, Dwayne Johnson, Howie Mandel,
Collin Farrell, Catherine Zeta Jones, Brooke Shields,
JK Rowling, Jake Padalecki, and Larry Sanders
using their social influence to talk about their own
mental health issues, thus creating a form of a new
“normal.” Bell Let’s Talk is one example of a Canadian
mental health initiative that provides support for
care and access at a community level, research, and
the encouragement of greater corporate responsibility for workplace health across Canada, but it
is probably best known for its fourth pillar of support whose anti-stigma awareness campaign hosts a
national conversation about mental illness (Bell Let’s
Talk, 2016). As spokesperson Howie Mandel argues,
if physical health, dental health, and mental health
were all viewed as simply health issues, perhaps the
stigmatization of persons with mental illness would
be diminished. Agent of Change Bill MacPhee is a
further example of a person using their own story
to reduce stigma by demonstrating that recovery is
possible with treatment and supports. What appears
common among most strategies designed to reduce
the stigma associated with mental health is increased
public understanding that mental illness is not a personal choice and that recovery is possible (Mental
Health Commission of Canada, 2012).
ENDING THOUGHTS
One of the ways of understanding the context of disability within our social environment is through the
lived experiences of people with disabilities. This is
the foundation upon which Walk a Mile was first conceived. Any strategies used to promote social inclusion of people with disabilities means respecting their
varied lived experiences.
Human rights commissions and tribunals in
Canada have reported discrimination based on
disability as the predominant type of discrimination for many years now (Canadian Human Rights
Commission, 2012). To change this fact, it is necessary to demonstrate to society the many ways
that disability touches people’s lives and to promote
improved reflective practices within all professions
around issues related to ableism (Shier, Sinclair, &
Gault, 2011).
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NEL CHAPTER 11 Ability 249
AGENT OF CHANGE
Bill MacPhee
Bill MacPhee describes himself as a mental health
recovery expert and defines recovery as “when you
wouldn’t want to be anyone other than who you are
today.” Why an expert? Many reasons, in fact. Bill is
the founder of Magpie Media Inc. that publishes
SZ Magazine, a publication containing the latest
research and information on schizophrenia, schizoaffective, and psychosis. In 2008, he published Anchor
magazine to aid in recovery from bipolar disorders,
depression, and anxiety. These magazines have
recently been replaced with a daily video vlog that
Bill provides called Life after Mental Illness. Bill is the
recipient of numerous awards recognizing his dedication to mental health recovery, including the 2012
National Council Reintegration Award, 2011 Kaiser
Foundation National Awards for Excellence—Media
Reporting, 2009 Transforming Lives Award (Center
for Addiction and Mental Health), 2007 Ontario Psychiatric Association Theodore Allen Sweet Award,
2005 National Alliance on Mental Illness New York
State Distinguished Media Award, 2005 FAME (Family
Association for Mental Health Everywhere) Award,
and many more. Bill has spent the last 20 years of
his life speaking to audiences across North America,
including college and universities, in an effort to educate others on mental health recovery and to help
eliminate the stigma associated with mental health.
It is not uncommon to find Bill at Tim Hortons in his
community lending a supportive ear to someone in
need, and the next day see him as keynote speaker at
a national conference. So by now, most are nodding
their heads that Bill is indeed a mental health recovery
expert and an exemplary agent of change. But perhaps most important of all is that Bill has experienced
recovery himself. At the age of 24, he was diagnosed
with schizophrenia and was pacing in a psychiatric
ward, trapped in psychosis. His inspirational personal
journey to recovery is chronicled in his personal biography titled, To Cry A Dry Tear.
Bill’s life with schizophrenia and the stigma attached
to the illness is also the focus of Canadian filmmaker
Mark Ashdown’s 2009 film, Life After Mental Illness:
The Story of Bill MacPhee. Bill has campaigned to
change the name of schizophrenia in an attempt to
remove the myths and stereotypes associated with the
diagnostic label of schizophrenia. An agent of change
in Canada who has “walked a mile” and then some.
Source: www.billmacphee.ca. Used with permission of Bill MacPhee. Used with permission of Bill MacPhee
Bill MacPhee
Diversity-competent practitioners must honour the
voices and lived experiences of all people. When we
define diversity in a way that privileges the concepts of
culture, ethnicity, and race, we further eclipse the lived
experiences of people with disabilities in a manner that
reinforces their social exclusion as members of our
communities. When the concept of ability is included
in the framework for achieving social equity and justice,
we move closer to the goal of social inclusion. As part
of this discussion, it becomes important to acknowledge
the fact that “all people live on a continuum of ability
and disability with our position on this continuum
dependent on time of life, the time of day, the situation
and the environment … ability is not an either/or situation where one is either able or not able” (Hoyle, 2004).
When we consider these universalizing lived experiences, we can begin to look at our shared humanity with
a people-first approach that sees ability in everyone.
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250 CHAPTER 11 Ability NEL
READING
LIVING WITH POST-TRAUMATIC STRESS
DISORDER
By Vesna Plazacic
There has been a lot of media coverage about post-traumatic
stress disorder (PTSD), with first-responders, war correspondents and former soldiers sharing personal stories publicly and
often for the first time. Experts agree that this is not only lifting
the veil of silence surrounding the condition, but also helps to
promote healing.
Most of us will experience some form of stress as a child
or adult that affects us physically, but our reactions and the
healing process are usually brief. For people who directly
experience or witness events such as crimes, natural disasters, car accidents, war or conflict, sexual violence or other
threats to life or safety, that stress can become life-altering.
In fact, eight per cent of us will experience PTSD after a
traumatic event. Those affected tend to re-experience the
traumatic event through vivid flashbacks and nightmares,
which can lead to anxiety, depression and avoidance of social
situations.
According to the Canadian Mental Health Association
(CMHA), people affected with PTSD often feel guilt and
shame and, because mental health illnesses are often not
physically visible, are told to try to “get over” the difficult
experience.
Complex PTSD
While PTSD forms as a mental disorder occurring after a
single event, some people will develop what is referred to as
complex (C)-PTSD. This form of PTSD is not well known,
and is a much more complicated version of the illness. It is
characterized by prolonged exposure to trauma, usually in
childhood, and the experience of events in which the victim
feels he or she has no control or opportunity for escape.
C-PTSD is often seen in victims of domestic, emotional,
physical or sexual abuse, and in those who have experienced
entrapment, kidnapping, slavery, long-term exposure to a
crisis or neglect. For individuals with physical disabilities,
C-PTSD can develop from traumatic events such as major
surgery, a life-threatening illness, time spent in intensive care
units (ICUs) and prolonged abuse by caregivers.
On her blog “Psychology in Everyday Life,” Dr. Deborah
Khoshaba explains that a person who experiences a trauma
in childhood is also more susceptible to developing C-PTSD
later in life. “The ongoing trauma takes up so much of the
growing child’s heart, mind and spirit,” she says, “that the
brain cannot attend to needs outside of the trauma, to grow
and strengthen. This is especially true of the brain’s frontal
lobe region that helps children to learn, control impulses,
regulate our emotions, reason, concentrate and problemsolve, or use their imagination toward goal-achievement.
Simply put, C-PTSD has a devastating impact on people’s
lives, as their intelligence, will and talent are seriously undermined by the disorder.”
Natacha’s experience
Retired Cpl Natacha Dupuis is still dealing with the aftermath
of the death of two friends and fellow solders who were killed
by an improvised explosive device in Afghanistan in 2009.
Three others were injured. Natacha was the first responder
on the scene.
“The whole thing lasted for about 20 minutes, from the
explosion to the evacuation of the injured and the deceased,”
she says. “But that 20 minutes left me with mental scars.”
Following the event, Natacha says she started experiencing
nightmares, flashbacks and panic attacks. When she returned
home to Quebec, she was diagnosed with PTSD.
“When I came home from Afghanistan I really fell apart,”
she says. “I think the stress and the adrenaline kept me going
through the mission, but when back in Canada, it got worse.
I suffered from flashbacks that were so real I would faint.”
Natacha even ended up in the hospital after a particularly
vivid, violent flashback.
She says it took her five years to learn how to cope with
her symptoms, find help through therapy and begin to put
the pieces of her life back together. Through the healing process, in 2011 she came across Soldier On, a Canadian Armed
Forces program that supports currently serving members
and veterans. Soldier On helps people to overcome physical
or mental illnesses and to cope with symptoms. Natacha
talks about attending events and beginning to see a positive
change in herself. Having gained more strength and developed new goals for success, she then found her way into the
Invictus Games, the international competition for military
personnel injured during service that was founded by Prince
Harry in 2014.
Natacha took home two gold medals in the IT7 100m
and 200m and a bronze in weight-lifting in last year’s competition in Florida.
“I gave it all I had for my country and for the fallen,
those two friends I lost,” she says of the emotional moments
crossing the finish line and winning her medals. She is currently training for the 2017 games, which will be held in
Toronto this September, and Natacha will be at the helm as
one of Team Canada’s two captains.
With respect to PTSD, Natacha believes that “It’s really
important to reach out and get the support you need. I don’t
think this will ever go away completely, but with time, hard
work and therapy, I will learn how to cope.”
Source: Plazacic, Vesna. “Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder.” Abilities Magazine, found at: http://abilities.ca/post-traumatic-stress-disorder. Reprinted
with permission from Abilities Magazine.
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NEL CHAPTER 11 Ability 251
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. Who gets PTSD? What are the symptoms of PTSD?
2. What is complex C-PTSD and what types of events may
cause this specific form of PTSD to develop?
3. What strategies has Natacha used to cope with the symptoms of PTSD in her life? Do you think as people like
Natacha share their experiences, the stigma and silence
surrounding PTSD will diminish?
ACTIVITY: JOURNAL
This journal activity is based on a true story. Two sisters
decide to go to the local shopping mall to pick something up.
One sister was diagnosed with multiple sclerosis at a young
age. This chronic progressive disease makes many aspects
of daily living a struggle, including walking. They park in
an accessible parking space close to the mall entrance and
display their accessibility permit as required by law. When
they return to their vehicle, they find this handwritten note
on the windshield.
1. In your journal, write a letter responding to the author
of this handwritten note.
2. We know that some disabilities are visible, some are
invisible, some are permanent, and others are temporary. Have you had personal experience with disability, either yourself or through someone you know?
What effect has this had on your understanding of
what the daily lived experiences are for people with
disabilities?
© C. Prantera
KWIP
KNOW IT AND OWN IT:
WHAT DO I BRING TO THIS?
The “K” in the KWIP process involves examining aspects
of your own identity and social location as the first step in
becoming diversity competent.
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252 CHAPTER 11 Ability NEL
ACTIVITY: CASE STUDY
The issue of academic accommodations in the postsecondary
learning environment is an important one for students with disabilities, particularly in the face of statistical data showing they are
less likely to graduate than students without disabilities (Statistics
Canada, 2012). In addition to dealing with issues relating to their
disability, students with disabilities are also faced with dealing
with barriers to accessible education. This case study is based on
a true story of a student studying in a Canadian university.
After completing a college diploma, Student X goes on a
vacation they had received as a graduation gift. While on vacation, Student X is injured in a skiing accident and acquires a
brain injury. After a year of physical and neuropsychological
rehabilitation, Student X wishes to continue their education
and enrols in a degree program at university. Student X registers with the centre for students with disabilities at the university. A month prior to the start of term, Student X meets with
the centre’s staff and submits all required documentation,
including medical reports and an educational assessment
completed by their neuropsychologist. Based on extensive
diagnostic assessment, the neuropsychologist recommends
the following academic accommodations for Student X:
• Note-taker
• Permission to record lectures (student signs agreement
that audio- recordings are for personal and educational
purposes only and cannot be distributed in any way to
another party).
• Because Student X has expressive aphasia, it is recommended that alternative assignments be given to take the
place of oral presentations.
• Because of cognitive issues relating to attention and concentration, a modified exam schedule of no more than one exam
per day is recommended, with at least one day between
exams, and exams taking longer than one hour to be completed at separate exam times of not more than one hour.
• Because of deficits with working memory, evaluations
need to be multiple-choice methods. Where this is not
possible, a take-home examination would be a second
alternative.
While most of the academic accommodations are
facilitated for Student X, they
do have difficulty with some
faculty refusing to follow
the letter of accommodation
with respect to evaluation
methods. This has an effect upon Student X’s ability to complete the program. Here are a few of the situations that Student
X faces trying to complete their courses:
• Student X is forced in one class to do an oral presentation
and as they struggle to find the words to speak because of
expressive aphasia, classmates begin to laugh. Student X
leaves the classroom and drops the course.
• In another course, the professor tells Student X that they
are not going to make up a special test just for them, so the
student is forced to do a test made up of short answer, fill in
the blank, and essay questions. Student X receives a grade
of 58 in the course. Student X retakes the course a year later
with a professor who evaluates their performance with multiple-choice testing and receives a grade of 92 in the course.
• Student X takes a course that requires the application of
mathematical equations. When Student X asks the course
professor if they can use a cue sheet for equations for the
exam, they are refused. The professor tells Student X that
it would be unfair for them to have a cue sheet when all
other students had to memorize equations—a kind of
“reverse discrimination” for students without disabilities
in the course.
• When Student X approaches the disability counsellor
assigned to them through the university’s centre for students with disabilities, Student X is told by their staff
that professors have the academic freedom to evaluate
a student’s performance in whatever manner they deem
necessary and are not required to follow academic accommodation relating to evaluation.
1. Using human rights legislation or other relevant legislation in your province or territory, discuss how “duty to
accommodate” would be relevant in this particular case.
2. Using human rights legislation or other relevant legislation in your province or territory, discuss how the concept of “academic freedom” and “essential requirements”
would be relevant in this particular case.
3. Imagine now that you are a professor in a postsecondary institution. How would you specifically deal
with Student X’s need for accommodation with course
evaluation methods? What would you do to ensure
that all students in your classroom are included? What
would you do to account for differences in learning
styles and learning needs? How would you evaluate students’ understanding in ways that allow all students to
demonstrate what they know?
Expressive aphasia: A
communication disorder
resulting from a neurological
issue affecting a part of the
brain that deals with language;
expressive aphasia makes it
difficult for the person to find
the words to say or write what
they mean.
WALKING THE TALK:
HOW CAN I LEARN FROM THIS?
The “W” in the KWIP process presents a scenario or case study
that challenges you to “walk the talk” through problem-based
learning.
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NEL CHAPTER 11 Ability 253
ACTIVITY: GOT PRIVILEGE?
As self-reflective practice helps us to examine our biases, stereotypes, and prejudices, we often realize that many of our feelings about disability may be unconscious and unintentional.
But at some point in your life, you are likely to experience a
disability, based on age, accident, or circumstance. It can be
visible or invisible, temporary or permanent. You will hope you
will be able to get to where you need to go. You will not want
to be praised for your courage, nor will you want to be pitied.
You will hope that your friends and loved ones won’t treat you
differently and begin to withdraw. You will hope that other
people you meet won’t define you by your disability, but will
rather see you as a whole person. In this exercise, we ask you to
examine your privilege and power in relation to your abilities.
ASKING: Do I have privilege?
1. I am reasonably sure that I will have physical access to all
areas of my classrooms and to all parts of the campus.
2. I can do well in situations without being told I am an
inspiration to other people of my ability status.
3. If I am not hired for a job, I do not have to question
whether this had anything to do with my physical or
mental ability.
4. I can easily access and implement the appropriate accommodations to help me learn and succeed in the postsecondary institution I attend.
REFLECTING: Honouring Our Privilege
In relation to your own physical, mental, sensory, developmental, or cognitive abilities, describe two traits that you possess that disadvantage you. Then describe two abilities that
privilege you over someone else. How can you use the advantages you experience because of your abilities to combat the
disadvantages experienced by others with different abilities?
PUT IT IN PLAY: HOW CAN I USE THIS?
The “P” in the KWIP process involves examining how others
are practising equity and how you might use this.
IT IS WHAT IT IS: IS THIS INSIDE
OR OUTSIDE MY COMFORT ZONE?
The “I” in the KWIP process requires you to honestly confront
and identify ways in which our complex identities result in
experiences of privilege and oppression, and to reflect on how
we can learn to honour that privilege.
ACTIVITY: CALL TO ACTION
When Canada Post announced that it would be ending doorto-door delivery in Canada, there was concern expressed
by seniors, persons with disabilities, and persons living
in remote communities about the impact of this business
decision on what had become an access issue for many
Canadians with issues relating to mobility. Susan Dixon, a
mother with a young son with cerebral palsy, launched a
change.org petition against the move. In her petition, Dixon
issued a challenge to Canada Post bosses to try and spend
a week retrieving their mail from a community box using a
wheelchair. While the petition claimed victory and did indeed
make door-to-door mail delivery an issue in the last federal
election, the victory chant may be a little premature. You
can view the petition on change.org at https://www.change
.org/p/don-t-let-canada-post-end-door-to-door-delivery/
responses/30760.
Located at www.nelson.com/student
● Review Key terms with interactive flash cards
● Check your Comprehension by completing chapter review quizzes
● Gauge your understanding with Picture This and accompanying short answer questions
● Develop your critical thinking/reading skills through compelling Readings and accompanying short
answer questions
● Apply your understanding to your own experience with Connect A Concept activities
● Evaluate Diversity in the Media with engaging Video Activities
● Reflect on your Understanding with KWIP activities { Study Tools
CHAPTER 11
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254 CHAPTER 11 Ability NEL
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